4,900,903 people
Source: Tyranny Tracker
HRF classifies the GNU Controlled Territory of Libya as ruled by a fully authoritarian governing authority.
The overthrow of Colonel Muammar Gaddafi’s 42-year authoritarian rule in 2011 marked a turning point in Libyan history. However, the ensuing years have seen continued political upheaval, civil conflict, and the partition of Libya into two zones of control. In 2012, the National Transitional Council (NTC) was formed as an interim authority during the post-Gaddafi transition, leading the country to its first parliamentary and presidential elections, which resulted in the formation of a General National Congress (GNC) as the interim legislature. In 2014, Libya held another election, which led to the formation of a new legislative body, the House of Representatives (HoR). However, Islamist armed groups connected with the GNC rejected the election results and called for the GNC’s restoration by applying pressure on the Libyan Supreme Court (LSC), which effectively dissolved the HoR in favor of reinstating the GNC. As a result, members of the HoR were forced to flee Tripoli and relocate to Tobruk in eastern Libya, an area under the control of the Libyan Armed Forces (LAF), a coalition of armed groups loyal to and commanded by General Khalifa Haftar, which functions as the primary military opposition to the forces of the internationally recognized government based in Tripoli. This effectively partitioned Libya into two separate areas of control. There, they continued to operate as a separate legislative body backed by Field Marshal Khalifa Haftar until they established the Government of National Stability (GNS) in 2022. In the west, the GNC formed the Government of National Accord (GNA), and in the east, the HoR, backed by the LAF under Haftar, formed the Government of National Stability (GNS). After a 14-month military campaign to capture Tripoli in 2019, the GNA and the GNS/LAF eventually signed a cease-fire in March 2021 under United Nations (UN) supervision. The United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL) convened the warring parties in Geneva for bilateral discussions, which led to the selection of Abdul Hamid Dbeibah as head of the new Government of National Unity (GNU) as a replacement for the GNA. He was tasked with leading the country to a general election. However, by 2025, Libya remained in a state of political flux. The lack of a strong central authority in Libya has emboldened numerous organized armed groups (OAGs), including armed tribes, many of whom have pledged loyalty to competing stakeholders.
Between 2014 and 2025, national elections were absent due to nonalignment between the GNU in western Libya and the GNS/LAF in the east, rendering moot any assessment of electoral competition. Without elections to establish their legitimacy, and with little to no coordination, both the GNU and the GNS/LAF are operating as unelected interim authorities in separate areas of control. However, the GNU still engages in barring political opposition figures and disenfranchises voters.
Independent media, political figures, civil society groups, and ordinary citizens suffer overt and systematic reprisal if they openly criticize or question the GNU. The ongoing political conflict, combined with the expansion of opposing armed organization groups, has undermined the ability of citizens to freely express their opinions, who face overt and systematic retaliation if they openly criticize or challenge the GNU or armed groups associated with it. Independent journalists have either fled to foreign countries or currently operate underground, and most of those currently employed in the industry are obliged to either self-censor or adhere to propaganda guidelines strictly enforced by the GNU in order to preserve their personal safety. Over the course of the Libyan crisis, the space available for civil society organizations has contracted, and numerous activists have been targeted and assassinated. This has caused civil society organizations (CSOs) to either discontinue their activities, transition to online activities, or operate underground to reduce their exposure.
Institutions largely fail to check the GNU. The GNU dominates the few operational courts in their respective area of control, and frequently exerts pressure on judicial actors to fulfill political goals. OAGs allied with the GNU operate freely and continuously interfere with and undermine the legal process by intimidating or even kidnapping judges and lawyers. The GNU has struggled to effectively address the issue of impunity, particularly for those responsible for human rights abuses committed by militias and other armed groups. This has led to a cycle of violence and a lack of trust in the government’s ability to ensure justice and accountability.
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