Yemen

Country Context

HRF classifies Yemen – PLC controlled territory as ruled by a fully authoritarian governing authority.

Since the Arab Spring in 2011, Yemen has been embroiled in a prolonged and complex conflict that began with a popular uprising against long-standing authoritarian President Ali Abdullah Saleh, leading to his abdication and the transfer of power to his vice president, Abdrabbu Mansur Hadi, in 2012. While Hadi’s Internationally Recognized Government (IRG), made up largely of Sunnis, continued to receive backing from the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), it appeared to exclude the Houthis, also known as Ansar Allah—a Zaidi Shia Muslim separatist group originating from Saada in northern Yemen, who remained critical of the IRG. The conflict intensified in 2014, driven by political grievances between the IRG, based in Aden, and the Houthi movement, based in Sanaa. The Houthis, who had a history of clashes with Yemeni authorities dating back to the early 2000s, sought to expand their control and overthrow the IRG. The conflict has had devastating human costs, with an estimated 233,000 deaths since 2014, including those directly caused by violence and indirect causes like famine, disease, and the collapse of healthcare services. In March 2022, the Saudi-led GCC coalition forced Hadi to transfer authority to an unelected Presidential Leadership Council (PLC) led by Rashad al-Alimi. This move aimed to unite various anti-Houthi factions and strengthen their opposition to the Houthi insurgency. However, efforts to broker peace through a subsequent UN-mediated truce beginning in April 2022 have failed to produce a lasting peace, leaving the country in a fragile state of suspended conflict. As of 2025, Yemen remains divided, with the IRG/PLC controlling approximately two-thirds of the territory, including the key port city of Aden, and the Houthis controlling Sanaa, the former capital, along with other smaller regions. Other groups, such as the Southern Transitional Council (STC), ISIS, and Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, also hold scattered territories, contributing to the ongoing instability and complexity of Yemen’s fractured political landscape.

Key Findings

National-level elections are absent in IRG/PLC areas of control, rendering moot any assessment of electoral competition. With the exception of a national referendum that saw Hadi run unopposed in 2012, presidential and legislative elections have been delayed by repeated cycles of conflict and violence, and a lack of regular political activity, rendering moot any assessment of electoral competition. Despite its mandate, the PLC has faced significant challenges and criticisms, including internal fragmentation and rivalries among its members, who often command their own organized armed groups (OAGs) with differing agendas. This has led to a lack of a cohesive political strategy, undermining the council’s ability to govern effectively or facilitate elections. The council’s ability to assert its authority has also been questioned, as some of its members, particularly from the STC, control more powerful forces than the chairman.

Independent media, political figures, civil society groups, and ordinary citizens suffer overt and systematic reprisal if they openly criticize or question the IRG/PLC. Independent journalists are at high risk in IRG/PLC-controlled areas. They are subjected to threats, intimidation, and physical attacks. In some cases, authorities have confiscated their equipment and shut down media outlets. The government’s control over state-run media and its restrictions on independent outlets severely limit the public’s access to diverse and critical information.

Institutions largely fail to check the IRG/PLC. The most significant factor undermining the PLC’s effectiveness is the deep-seated rivalry among its members. The council comprises leaders from different political and military groups with competing agendas, such as the Southern Transitional Council (STC), which seeks to secede, and the Islah Party, a political faction. This lack of a common vision prevents the council from functioning as a cohesive governing body.